panel survey asking the same individuals questions over a period of time in order to find out whether and how the attitudes of these people change over time

audience fragmentation the process of dividing audience members into segments based on background and lifestyle in order to send them messages targeted to their specific characteristics

mass production process the industrial process that creates the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people at around the same time

industrial nature the aspect of industrialized—or mass production—processes involved in creating the message material that distinguishes mass communication from other forms of communication. This industrial process creates the potential for reaching billions of diverse, anonymous people simultaneously.

communication refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved understands as messages

messages collections of symbols (words, signs) that appear purposely organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them

interpersonal communication a form of communication that involves two or three individuals signaling to each other using their voices, facial and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes) to convey meaning

mediated interpersonal communication a specialized type of interpersonal communication that is assisted by a device, such as a pen or pencil, computer, or phone

medium part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, distribution, or reception of messages

mass media the technological vehicles through which mass communication takes place (note that the term “mass media” is plural and refers to more than one vehicle; the singular version is mass medium)

mass media outlets companies that send out messages via mass media

analog electronic transmission accomplished by adding signals of varying frequency of amplitude to carrier waves of a given frequency of alternating electromagnetic current. Broadcast and phone transmissions conventionally have used analog technology

digital electronic technology that generates, stores, processes, and transmits data in the form of strings of 0s and 1s; each of these digits is referred to as a bit (and a string of bits that a computer can address individually as a group is a byte)

convergence the ability of different media to easily interact with each other because they all deal with information in the same digital form

social currency media content used as coins of exchange in everyday interpersonal discussions

parasocial interaction the psychological connections that some media users establish with celebrities whom they learn about through the mass media

surveillance using the media to learn about what is happening in the world around us

interpretation using the media to find out why things are happening—who or what is the cause—and what to do about them

interactivity the ability to track and respond to any actions triggered by the end user, in order to cultivate a rapport

culture ways of life that are passed on to members of a society through time and that keep the society together

society large numbers of individuals, groups, and organizations that live in the same general area and consider themselves connected to one another through the sharing of a culture

subcultures groups with habits that many people consider odd and unusual but not threatening to the more general way of life

stereotypes predictable depictions that reflect (and sometimes create) cultural prejudices

political ideologies beliefs about who should hold the greatest power within a culture

literacy the ability to effectively comprehend and use messages that are expressed in written or printed symbols, such as letters

media literacy the ability to apply critical thinking skills to the mass media, thereby becoming a more aware and responsible citizen—parent, voter, worker—in our mediadriven society

mass media research the use of systematic methods to understand or solve problems regarding the mass media

propaganda messages designed to change the attitudes and behavior of huge numbers of otherwise disconnected individuals on controversial social issues

agenda setting the notion that the media create “the ideas in our heads” about what is going on in the world

propaganda analysis the systematic examination of mass media messages that seem designed to sway the attitudes of large populations on controversial issues

magic bullet or hypodermic needle approach the idea that messages delivered through the mass media persuade all people powerfully and directly (as if they were hit by a bullet or injected by a needle) without the people having any control over the way they react

social relations interactions among people that influence the way individuals interpret media messages

active audience the idea that people are not simply passive recipients of media messages; they respond to content based on their personal backgrounds, interests, and interpersonal relationships

uses and gratifications research research that studies how people use media products to meet their needs and interests; it asks (and answers) questions about why individuals use the mass media

naturalistic experiment a study in which randomly selected people are manipulated in a relatively controlled environment (as in an experiment) without knowing that they are involved in an experiment

priming the process by which the media affect the standard that individuals use to evaluate what they see and hear in the media

knowledge gap The development of any political/social issue is processed and understood better and earlier by the more educated segments in comparison to the less educated ones. In fact, they acquire the information at a faster rate, thus creating an even wider difference between the two types.

digital divide the separation between those who have access to and knowledge about technology and those who (perhaps be cause of their level of education or income) do not

mainstream approaches the research models that developed out of the work of the Columbia School, the Yale School, and the Payne Fund Studies

capitalism as defined by Karl Marx, the ownership of the means of production by a ruling class in society

critical theory the Frankfurt School’s members’ theories focusing on the corrosive influence of capitalism on culture

co-optation a term coined by Marcuse to express the way in which capitalism takes potentially revolutionary ideas and tames them to express capitalist ideals

political economy an area of study that focuses specifically on the relationship between the economic and the cultural and that looks at when and how the economic structures of society and the media system reflect the political interests of society’s rich and powerful

colonialism control over a dependent area or people by a powerful entity by force or arms

cultural colonialism the exercise of control over an area or people by a dominant power, not so much through force of arms as by surrounding the weaker countries with cultural materials that reflect values and beliefs supporting the interests of that dominant power

cultivation studies studies that emphasize that when media systematically portray certain populations in unfavorable ways, the ideas that mainstream audiences pick up about those people help certain groups in society retain their power over the groups they denigrate

cultural studies Studies with the idea that all mass media, from newspaper to movies, present the audience with technology/texts that audiences find meaning in. The question on how and with what result however, remains unanswered by many scholars

polysemous open to multiple meanings

Comparing Media Research Theories