Media Culture

audience fragmentation the process of dividing audience members into segments based on background and lifestyle in order to send them messages targeted to their specific characteristics

mass production process the industrial process that creates the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people at around the same time

industrial nature the aspect of industrialized—or mass production—processes involved in creating the message material that distinguishes mass communication from other forms of communication. This industrial process creates the potential for reaching billions of diverse, anonymous people simultaneously.

communication refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved understands as messages

messages collections of symbols (words, signs) that appear purposely organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them

interpersonal communication a form of communication that involves two or three individuals signaling to each other using their voices, facial and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes) to convey meaning

mediated interpersonal communication a specialized type of interpersonal communication that is assisted by a device, such as a pen or pencil, computer, or phone

medium part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, distribution, or reception of messages

mass media the technological vehicles through which mass communication takes place (note that the term “mass media” is plural and refers to more than one vehicle; the singular version is mass medium)

mass media outlets companies that send out messages via mass media

analog electronic transmission accomplished by adding signals of varying frequency of amplitude to carrier waves of a given frequency of alternating electromagnetic current. Broadcast and phone transmissions conventionally have used analog technology

digital electronic technology that generates, stores, processes, and transmits data in the form of strings of 0s and 1s; each of these digits is referred to as a bit (and a string of bits that a computer can address individually as a group is a byte)

convergence the ability of different media to easily interact with each other because they all deal with information in the same digital form

social currency media content used as coins of exchange in everyday interpersonal discussions

parasocial interaction the psychological connections that some media users establish with celebrities whom they learn about through the mass media

surveillance using the media to learn about what is happening in the world around us

interpretation using the media to find out why things are happening—who or what is the cause—and what to do about them

interactivity the ability to track and respond to any actions triggered by the end user, in order to cultivate a rapport

culture ways of life that are passed on to members of a society through time and that keep the society together

society large numbers of individuals, groups, and organizations that live in the same general area and consider themselves connected to one another through the sharing of a culture

subcultures groups with habits that many people consider odd and unusual but not threatening to the more general way of life

stereotypes predictable depictions that reflect (and sometimes create) cultural prejudices

political ideologies beliefs about who should hold the greatest power within a culture

literacy the ability to effectively comprehend and use messages that are expressed in written or printed symbols, such as letters

media literacy the ability to apply critical thinking skills to the mass media, thereby becoming a more aware and responsible citizen—parent, voter, worker—in our mediadriven society

mass media research the use of systematic methods to understand or solve problems regarding the mass media

propaganda messages designed to change the attitudes and behavior of huge numbers of otherwise disconnected individuals on controversial social issues

agenda setting the notion that the media create “the ideas in our heads” about what is going on in the world

propaganda analysis the systematic examination of mass media messages that seem designed to sway the attitudes of large populations on controversial issues

magic bullet or hypodermic needle approach the idea that messages delivered through the mass media persuade all people powerfully and directly (as if they were hit by a bullet or injected by a needle) without the people having any control over the way they react

social relations interactions among people that influence the way individuals interpret media messages

panel survey asking the same individuals questions over a period of time in order to find out whether and how the attitudes of these people change over time

active audience the idea that people are not simply passive recipients of media messages; they respond to content based on their personal backgrounds, interests, and interpersonal relationships

uses and gratifications research research that studies how people use media products to meet their needs and interests; it asks (and answers) questions about why individuals use the mass media

naturalistic experiment a study in which randomly selected people are manipulated in a relatively controlled environment (as in an experiment) without knowing that they are involved in an experiment

priming the process by which the media affect the standard that individuals use to evaluate what they see and hear in the media

knowledge gap The development of any political/social issue is processed and understood better and earlier by the more educated segments in comparison to the less educated ones. In fact, they acquire the information at a faster rate, thus creating an even wider difference between the two types.

digital divide the separation between those who have access to and knowledge about technology and those who (perhaps be cause of their level of education or income) do not

mainstream approaches the research models that developed out of the work of the Columbia School, the Yale School, and the Payne Fund Studies

capitalism as defined by Karl Marx, the ownership of the means of production by a ruling class in society

critical theory the Frankfurt School’s members’ theories focusing on the corrosive influence of capitalism on culture

co-optation a term coined by Marcuse to express the way in which capitalism takes potentially revolutionary ideas and tames them to express capitalist ideals

political economy an area of study that focuses specifically on the relationship between the economic and the cultural and that looks at when and how the economic structures of society and the media system reflect the political interests of society’s rich and powerful

colonialism control over a dependent area or people by a powerful entity by force or arms

cultural colonialism the exercise of control over an area or people by a dominant power, not so much through force of arms as by surrounding the weaker countries with cultural materials that reflect values and beliefs supporting the interests of that dominant power

cultivation studies studies that emphasize that when media systematically portray certain populations in unfavorable ways, the ideas that mainstream audiences pick up about those people help certain groups in society retain their power over the groups they denigrate

cultural studies Studies with the idea that all mass media, from newspaper to movies, present the audience with technology/texts that audiences find meaning in. The question on how and with what result however, remains unanswered by many scholars

polysemous open to multiple meanings

Comparing Media Research Theories

mass media research the use of systematic methods to understand or solve problems regarding the mass media

audiences the people to whom a media product is directed

media practitioners the people who select or create the material that a mass media firm produces, distributes, or exhibits

adequate revenue enough cash to allow the enterprise to pay for itself and give the owners or bankers who put up the money the desired return on their investment

demographics characteristics by which people are divided into particular social categories

demographic indicators factors such as age, gender, occupation, ethnicity, race, and income

psychographics a way to differentiate among people or groups by categorizing them according to their attitudes, personality types, or motivations

lifestyle categories activities in which potential audiences are involved that mark them as different from others in the population at large

track record the previous successes or failures of a product, person, or organization

research and development (R&D) departments within companies that explore new ideas and generate new products and services, systematically investigating potential sources of revenue through surveys, focus groups, or the analysis of existing data

surveys a research tool that seeks to ask a certain number of carefully chosen people the same questions individually over the phone, online, or in person.

focus group an assemblage of 8 to 10 carefully chosen people who are asked to discuss their habits and opinions about one or more topics

analysis of existing data a systematic investigation into the potential audience for the material (who they are, where they are, how much they like the idea, how much they will pay for it) and into the competitors (who they are, how similar their products are, how powerful they are)

genres major categories of media content

entertainment material that grabs the audience’s attention and leaves agreeable feelings, as opposed to challenging their views of themselves and the world

formula a patterned approach to creating content that is characterized by the use of setting, typical characters, and patterns of action

setting the environment in which content takes place

typical characters those who appear regularly in the subgenre

patterns of action the predictable activities associated with the characters in the settings

hybrid genres a term used by some academic writers to describe mixed genres

hybridity the process of mixing genres within a culture and across cultures

dramedy a subgenre that blends the rules associated with drama (serious) and comedy (funny)

journalists individuals who are trained to report nonfiction events to an audience

hard news a news story marked by timeliness, unusualness, conflict, and closeness

objectivity presenting a fair, balanced, and impartial representation of the events that took place by recounting a news event based on the facts and without interpretation, way in which the news ought to be researched, organized.

accuracy reporting factually correct information

investigative reports in-depth explorations of some aspects of reality

editorial subgenre of news that concentrates on an individual’s or an organization’s point of view

columnists individuals who are paid to write editorials on a regular basis— usually weekly, monthly, or daily

blogs journalistic websites or opinion sites in which writings are in the style of journal entries, often in reverse chronological order

soft news the kind of news story that news workers feel may not have the critical importance of hard news but nevertheless would appeal to a substantial number of people in the audience

information the raw material that journalists use when they create news stories

education content that is purposefully crafted to teach people specific ideas about the world in specific ways

advertisement a message that explicitly aims to direct favorable attention to certain goods and services

product placement the process by which a manufacturer pays—often tens of thousands of dollars and sometimes far more—a production company for the opportunity to have its product displayed in a movie or TV show

informational ads advertisements that rely primarily on the recitation of facts about a product and the product’s features to convince target consumers that it is the right product for them to purchase

hard-sell ads messages that combine information about the product with intense attempts to get the consumer to purchase it as soon as possible

soft-sell ads advertisements that aim mostly to create good feelings about the product or service by associating it with music, personalities, or events that the creators of that product or service feel would appeal to the target audience

production the creation of mass media materials for distribution through one or more mass media vehicles

mass media production firm a company that creates materials for distribution through one or more mass media vehicles

administrative personnel workers who oversee the business side of the media organization

creative personnel individuals who get initial ideas for the material or use their artistic talent to put the material together

on-staff worker a worker who has secured a full-time position at a production firm

freelancers workers who make a living by accepting and completing assignments for a number of different companies—sometimes several at one time

talent guild a union formed by people who work in similar crafts to help negotiate rules with major production firms in their industries regarding the ways in which freelance creatives will be treated and paid

collaborative activity an activity in which many people work together to initiate, create, and polish the end material

schedule the pattern in which the programs are arranged and presented to the audience

format the rules that guide the flow of products that are put together with a particular audience attracting goal in mind; a formula that describes a particular media product

distribution the delivery of the produced material to the point where it will be shown to its intended audience

powerful distributor a firm that can ensure the media products it carries will end up in the best locations at the best exhibitors to the best audience

exhibition the activity of presenting mass media materials to audiences for viewing or purchase

shelf space the amount of area or time available for presenting products to consumers

trade incentives payments in cash, discounts, or publicity activities that provide a special reason for an exhibitor to highlight a product

cooperative advertising (also known as co-op advertising) advertising paid for in part by media production firms or their distributors in order to help the exhibitor promote the product

vertical integration an organization’s control over a media product from production through distribution to exhibition

loan money borrowed from an organization, usually a bank, for a certain price (a percentage of the loan called an interest rate)

investment banks companies that arrange to lend millions, even tens and hundreds of millions, of dollars to companies and that also arrange stock offerings

syndicate a group of banks that agree to share the risks and rewards of the lending deal, organized by investment banks when very large amounts of money are required

stock offerings selling units of ownership in the company, or shares of stock, to organizations and individuals

venture capitalists individuals or companies that invest in startup or nonpublic firms in the hope that the firms’ value will increase over time

initial public offering (IPO) the offering for sale to the general public of a predetermined number of shares of company stock that were previously owned by a limited number of individuals and the listing of the company’s shares on the stock exchange

profits the amount of money brought in by the completed products (the revenues) minus expenses

retransmission fee amount a cable system or satellite firm pays to a broadcaster for the right to pick the broadcaster’s signal off the air and send it to cable or satellite subscribers.

government regulation a wide variety of activities and laws through which elected and appointed officials at local, state, and federal levels exercise influence over media firms